A Conceptual Framework for Studying the Sources of Variation in Program Effects

Evaluations of public programs in many fields reveal that (1) different types of programs (or different versions of the same program) vary in their effectiveness, (2) a program that is effective for one group of people might not be effective for other groups of people, and (3) a program that is effective in one set of circumstances may not be effective in other circumstances. This paper presents a conceptual framework for research on such variation in program effects and the sources of this variation. The framework is intended to help researchers -- both those who focus mainly on studying program implementation and those who focus mainly on estimating program effects -- see how their respective pieces fit together in a way that helps to identify factors that explain variation in program effects and thereby support more systematic data collection on these factors. The ultimate goal of the framework is to enable researchers to offer better guidance to policymakers and program operators on the conditions and practices that are associated with larger and more positive effects

Oak Savanna Restoration: A Case Study

A degraded oak savanna in southwestern Wisconsin is being restored using intensive cutting of undesirable shrubs- buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)-and selective removal of trees that are crowding the open-grown bur (Quercus macrocarpa) and white (Q. alba) oaks. Land use records and historic aerial photographs have been used to guide the restoration process. Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra), black walnut (Juglans nigra), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and black oak (Q. velutina) are being removed by cutting and burning or by converting to lumber or firewood. Hundreds of aspen (Populus tremuloides and P. grandentata) have been killed by girdling with subsequent cutting and burning. Management involves controlled burns and extensive weed control. Removal of invasive shrubs and trees has exposed the ground layer to higher light intensities and stimulated the growth of savanna forbs and grasses. A number of typical herbaceous savanna species have reappeared after clearing or have been successfully introduced from local sources. However, control of brambles (Rubus spp.) and regrowth of buckthorn and honeysuckle remain principal problems. One savanna species endangered in Wisconsin-purple milkweed (Asclepias purpurascens)-was first seen in the savanna after a single controlled burn, and appears to be spreading. The redheaded woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), a typical savanna bird, was first seen after shrub and canopy clearing in the savanna. Tree removal is a slow and expensive operation, and strategies for preventing damage to the groundlayer during tree removal had to be devised. About 70 acres (28 hectares) of savanna have been restored during nine years

The (After) Life-Cycle Theory of Religious Contributions

We construct and estimate an economic model of religious giving. We employ a dynamic consumer optimization model with mortality in which intra-temporal utility stems from both consumption and religious contributions. Individuals also decide how to allocate resources between religious contributions (which have both a this-life consumption value and an after-life investment value) and other consumption expenditures. If religious contributions do not have an after-life investment value, the ratio of contributions to consumption expenditures should be unrelated to the probability of death. However, if there is an investment value from religious giving, individuals should allocate a greater share of their income to religious contributions as their probability of death increases. We estimate the model using data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey on the consumption and religious contribution patterns of a repeated cross-section of households and of a synthetic cohort panel. We find strong evidence that individuals behave as if religious contributions have a value in the after-life, in a manner consistent with the after life-cycle model. The estimates of the structural parameters of the model also imply that while after-life investment considerations (i.e. impending death) are an important determinant of the life-cycle profile of religious contributions, within-life (i.e. religious consumption) factors pin down a household’s average level of religious contributions over a lifetime.god, life-cycle, consumption, religion, tithing

Legacy Effects in Prairie Restoration: A 73-Year Spatial History

Black Earth Rettenmund Prairie State Natural Area, one of the highest quality prairie remnants in southern Wisconsin’s Driftless Area, has been the target of extensive restoration efforts since it was acquired by the Nature Conservancy (TNC) in 1986. In the present work, I analyzed the spatial history of this prairie using a Geographical Information System (GIS) and an extended series of air photos, on-the-ground surveys, early maps, and land-use records. In 1937, when the first air photo was taken, the site was nearly devoid of trees and shrubs. In subsequent years, the site became progressively woody until at the time of purchase by TNC, it was over half covered by shrubs and trees. Maps and field notes made by TNC and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) provided detailed information on the woody taxa at the time of acquisition. Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides), and sumac (Rhus glabra) were the dominant woody species. Stewardship files during more than 25 years of restoration work provided data on the effort expended. Tree and shrub removal and frequent prescribed burns were used to restore the prairie. Although these efforts led to substantial success, a legacy of the woody vegetation remained, complicating restoration efforts. Sumac and gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa) are particularly troublesome, but brambles (Rubus sp.) and grape (Vitis sp.) also present problems. I used a Global Positioning System (GPS) to define boundaries of current woody areas and I found that they corresponded closely to the areas previously dominated by trees and shrubs

Sell Yourself: Building a Foundational Structure Around an Institution\u27s Position in the College Application Process

The act of persuasion, specifically in the context of higher education recruiting, lacks both a breadth and depth of research. This could be due to economic trends inevitably promoting college attendance for high school seniors. With the recent influx of both online education, as well as for-profit institutions, there has been a shift in the approach to recruiting potential students to enroll at affiliated institutions each year. This study took a qualitative, grounded theory approach to understand both the intended persuasive strategies conceived by participating four-year Universities in the state of Utah, as well as the actual messages delivered to prospective students. Data were gathered through observation and interviewing. Results showed five themes based on message content: (a) financial value and affordability, (b) academic resilience, (c) engaging student life, (d) optimal location, (e) customer flexibility and personalization, as well as three categories based on message form: (a) narrative, (b) reputational esteem, (c) and fear appeals. The central theoretical idea emerging from the results indicated the narrative paradigm (Fisher, 1984, 1985, 1987) as the theoretical backing for this research, with narratives being the most commonly used and shared strategy by the participating institutions. This study is a preliminary approach to help understand the effectiveness of persuasion tactics in the context of recruiting students to pursue an education at the college level

Lightly crosslinked poly(ethylene glycol)-tethered, pH-responsive biomaterials

Significant effort has been spent on altering the pharmacokinetic profile of drugs and identifying ways to slow down the GI transit of the therapeutic, especially that of the small intestine, the location where the majority of absorption occurs. The two main areas of thrust for research pertaining to increasing the bioavailability of drugs possessing narrow absorption windows are retaining the dosage form in the stomach (gastroretentive) and slowing down transit time in the small intestine (mucoadhesive). Gastroretentive dosage forms maintain the drug delivery system above the absorption window and release the drug accordingly. Mucoadhesion affords the ability to slow upper GI transit by maintaining the dosage form at the site of absorption through some type of interaction with the intestinal mucosa. The motility of the gastrointestinal tract plays a major role in appropriately engineering a dosage form. The delivery system must be designed so that it works with the digestive system to accomplish the goal of targeting the area where the narrow absorption window of the therapeutic exists and controlling the release to enhance the pharmacokinetic profile. Smart biomaterials composed of pH responsive polymers, poly((meth)acrylic acid), were synthesized using a precipitation polymerization technique. The microparticles were grafted with linear polymer chains (PEG) that are capable of complexing with the hydroxyl groups of the polyacid and interpenetrating into the mucus gel layer upon entry into the small intestine. Upon introduction of an alkaline solution, these materials imbibe a significant amount of water and create a highly viscous solution. The gelled materials serve as both a controlled release membrane and resist the inertial forces associated with motility, thereby effectively slowing down the transit of the dosage form. The amount and length of the linear chain were varied to investigate their effects on the release behavior of a model compound.Chemical Engineerin

Against Morality: A Critical Realist Examination of a History of Western Sexual Normativity. An Appeal for Emancipation and Explanation through Emergentist Social Science

A model of reality derived from critical realism and historical sociology provides a sufficient account of Christian sexual morality and shows that powerful human agents are responsible for the normative regulation of non-procreative forms of sexual activity in the West. If we are to understand the sui generis powers of human agents, sociology must engage with a model of reality which adequately conceptualises an entwining synchronic and diachronic realm. It is only here, in a connexion of the theoretical and empirical, that an essential grasp of social phenomena at depth can be reached and a true appreciation of hegemony and resistance can be rendered explicit for the purposes of emancipatory social science. ‘Emancipation through explanation; explanation through emergence’ (Bhaskar, 2009, p.103); this model of reality shows that Christian sexual codes are based on an untenable moral positioning which confuses biological sequence with a social construction. Human dignity is not derived from procreative sex; social scientific inquiry shows that these moral truths are based on unsound normative avowals. Through a history of ‘norm circles’ (Elder-Vass, 2010, p.115), it is reasoned that the historical preservation of (hetero)sexuality is tantamount to the protection of Christian ecclesiastical norms. Morality should not be rendered on a biological sequence of occurrences and it is irresponsible to base human sexual codes on testimony that can be retroduced as a product of irrational human collectivities. There is nothing divine about the persecution on the basis of difference; it is the emergent consequence of a hegemonic history of ideas. This project traces that history and those groups whose normative proclamations break with prejudice and intolerance. Therefore, the power of political action must not be misjudged. If nothing else, it is where the sui generis powers of human agency are most lucid: a causal force which yields, in its own way, the argument that all forms of sexuality are moral